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Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on their uses. It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include , , , , and groundwater. Water pollution results when mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater. Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation. Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem services such as drinking water provided by the Water resources.
Sources of water pollution are either or . Point sources have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a wastewater treatment plant, or an oil spill. Non-point sources are more diffuse. An example is Surface runoff. Pollution is the result of the cumulative effect over time. Pollution may take many forms. One would is toxic substances such as oil, metals, plastics, , persistent organic pollutants, and industrial waste products. Another is stressful conditions such as changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, or changes of salinity). The introduction of Pathogen is another. Contaminants may include organic compound and inorganic substances. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.
Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as well as legislation. Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment control and control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).
Inadequately treated wastewater can convey nutrients, pathogens, heterogenous suspended solids and organic fecal matter.
| +Pollutants and their effects* !Pollutant !Main representative parameter !Possible effect of the pollutant | ||
| Suspended solids | Total suspended solids |
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| Biodegradable organic matter | Biological oxygen demand (BOD) |
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| Pathogens |
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| Non-biodegradable organic matter |
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| Inorganic dissolved solids |
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| * Sources of these pollutants are household and industrial wastewater, urban runoff and stormwater drainage from agricultural areas | ||
Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts. Some microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health problems include Burkholderia pseudomallei, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Salmonella, norovirus and other viruses, and parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type.Schueler, Thomas R. "Microbes and Urban Watersheds: Concentrations, Sources, & Pathways." Reprinted in The Practice of Watershed Protection. 2000. Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD.
The source of high levels of pathogens in water bodies can be from human feces (due to open defecation), sewage, blackwater, or manure that has found its way into the water body. The cause for this can be lack of sanitation procedures or poorly functioning on-site sanitation systems (, ), Sewage treatment without disinfection steps, sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows (CSOs) during storm events and intensive agriculture (poorly managed livestock operations).
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants.
Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and , where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.
Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for microplastics from land to sea. Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most common sources of microplastics. These three sources account for more than 80% of all microplastic contamination.
Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.WHO and UNICEF (2017) Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017 Lack of access to sanitation is concerning and often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during rain events.
As of 2022, Europe and Central Asia account for around 16% of global discharge into the seas, and although management of plastic waste and its recycling is improving globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of. Even if sea plastic pollution were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to continue to increase.
The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes ( see United States regulation of point source water pollution).United States. Clean Water Act (CWA), section 502(14), (14). The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.U.S. CWA section 402(p),
Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the wastewater is not treated and managed properly:
Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. The main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain are anthropogenic, but nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulphur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic ecosystems and infrastructure.
Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have increased since the 1850s due anthropogenic influences (emissions of greenhouse gases). This leads to ocean acidification and is another form of water pollution from atmospheric contributions.
Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or electrical conductance (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Water samples may be examined using analytical chemistry methods. Many published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are pH, BOD,
The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as Biomonitoring. This refers to the measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical and chemical environment. Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is present. One example of a group of bio-indicators are the and other small water that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.
Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches: Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures.
Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.
Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).
Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary treatment stages or more advanced tertiary treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage. Some plants have additional systems to remove and pathogens. While such advanced treatment techniques will undoubtedly reduce the discharges of , they can also result in large financial costs, as well as environmentally undesirable increases in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
Sewer overflows during storm events can be addressed by timely maintenance and upgrades of the Sewerage. In the US, cities with large combined systems have not pursued system-wide separation projects due to the high cost, but have implemented partial separation projects and green infrastructure approaches. In some cases municipalities have installed additional CSO storage facilities or expanded sewage treatment capacity.
Erosion caused by deforestation and changes in hydrology (soil loss due to water runoff) also results in loss of sediment and, potentially, water pollution.
After the release of the report, The Guardian newspaper interviewed Whitty, who stated that improving water quality and sewage treatment should be a high level of importance and a "public health priority". He compared it to eradicating cholera in the 19th century in the country following improvements to the sewage treatment network. The study also identified that low water flows in rivers saw high concentration levels of sewage, as well as times of flooding or heavy rainfall. While heavy rainfall had always been associated with sewage overflows into streams and rivers, the British media went as far to warn parents of the dangers of paddling in shallow rivers during warm weather.
Whitty's comments came after the study revealed that the UK was experiencing a growth in the number of people that were using coastal and inland waters recreationally. This could be connected to a growing interest in activities such as open water swimming or other . Despite this growth in recreation, poor water quality meant some were becoming unwell during events. Most notably, the 2024 Paris Olympics had to delay numerous swimming-focused events like the triathlon due to high levels of sewage in the River Seine.
Marine pollution
Nutrient pollution
Thermal pollution
Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels (due to lower levels of dissolved oxygen, as gases are less soluble in warmer liquids), which can kill fish (which may then rot) and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.
Biological pollution
The introduction of aquatic Invasive species is a form of water pollution as well. It causes biological pollution.
Groundwater pollution
In many areas of the world, groundwater pollution poses a hazard to the wellbeing of people and ecosystems. One-quarter of the world's population depends on groundwater for drinking, yet concentrated recharging is known to carry short-lived contaminants into carbonate aquifers and jeopardize the purity of those waters.
Pollution from point sources
Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a water pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.
Sewage
Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. (2025). 9780444636072 ISBN 9780444636072 Sewage contributes many classes of nutrients that lead to Eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for example. (2025). 9781118863831 ISBN 9781118863831 Sewage is often contaminated with diverse compounds found in personal hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see also drug pollution), and their metabolites Water pollution due to environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm events this can lead to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer overflows or Combined sewer. on Anglesey]]
Industrial wastewater
Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called industrial wastewater. Using the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of water (using over 60% of the total consumption) are power plants, petroleum refineries, iron and steel mills, pulp and paper mills, and food processing industries. Some industries discharge chemical wastes, including solvents and heavy metals (which are toxic) and other harmful pollutants.
Oil spills
Pollution from nonpoint sources
Agriculture
Agriculture is a major contributor to water pollution from nonpoint sources. The use of fertilizers as well as surface runoff from farm fields, pastures and leads to nutrient pollution. In addition to plant-focused agriculture, fish-farming is also a source of pollution. Additionally, agricultural runoff often contains high levels of pesticides.
Atmospheric contributions (air pollution)
Air deposition is a process whereby air pollutants from industrial or natural sources settle into water bodies. The deposition may lead to polluted water near the source, or at distances up to a few thousand miles away. The most frequently observed water pollutants resulting from industrial air deposition are sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds, mercury compounds, other heavy metals, and some pesticides and industrial by-products. Natural sources of air deposition include forest fires and microbial activity.
(2025). 9780821361795, World Bank. ISBN 9780821361795
Sampling, measurements, analysis
Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Others involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests in the laboratory. Standardized, validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples have been published.For example, see (2025). 9780875530475, American Public Health Association. ISBN 9780875530475
(2025). 9780816077472, Checkmark Books. ISBN 9780816077472 chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), Hard water, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, e.g. nitrate and ), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and .
Impacts
Ecosystems
Water pollution is a major global environmental problem because it can result in the degradation of all aquatic ecosystems – fresh, coastal, and ocean waters. The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of , pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as human-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the of some fish species. collected from pit latrines is dumped into a river at the Korogocho slum in Nairobi, Kenya]]
Public health and waterborne diseases
A study published in 2017 stated that "polluted water spread gastrointestinal diseases and parasitic infections and killed 1.8 million people" (these are also referred to as waterborne diseases). Persistent exposure to pollutants through water are environmental health hazards, which can increase the likelihood for one to develop cancer or other diseases.Dovjak, Mateja; Kukec, Andreja (2019), "Health Outcomes Related to Built Environments", Creating Healthy and Sustainable Buildings, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 43–82, , ,
Eutrophication from nitrogen pollution
Nitrogen pollution can cause eutrophication, especially in lakes. Eutrophication is an increase in the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Subsequent negative environmental effects such as Anoxic waters (oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality may occur. This can harm fish and other animal populations.
Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification is another impact of water pollution. Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH value of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide () from the atmosphere.
Prevalence
Water pollution is a problem in developing countries as well as in developed countries.
By country
For example, water pollution in India and China is widespread. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.
Control and reduction
Pollution control philosophy
One aspect of environmental protection is mandatory regulations, which are only part of the solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic instruments, market forces, and stricter enforcement. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based economic instruments for pollution control can include charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes, the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives.
Sanitation and sewage treatment
Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, decentralized wastewater systems, nature-based solutionsUN-Water (2018) World Water Development Report 2018: Nature-based Solutions for Water, Geneva, Switzerland or in onsite sewage facilities and septic tanks. For example, waste stabilization ponds can be a low cost treatment option for sewage. UV light (sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons). The use of safely managed sanitation services would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to sanitation.
Industrial wastewater treatment
Agricultural wastewater treatment
Management of erosion and sediment control
Sediment from construction sites can be managed by installation of , such as and hydroseeding, and , such as and .Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation. Nashville, TN (2012). "Tennessee Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook." Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout can be prevented by use of spill prevention and control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow controls and diversion berms.
Control of urban runoff (storm water)
Legislation
Philippines
In the Philippines, Republic Act 9275, otherwise known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, is the governing law on wastewater management. It states that it is the country's policy to protect, preserve and revive the quality of its fresh, brackish and marine waters, for which wastewater management plays a particular role.
United Kingdom
In 2024, The Royal Academy of Engineering released a study into the effects wastewater on public health in the United Kingdom. The study gained media attention, with comments from the UKs leading health professionals, including Sir Chris Whitty. Outlining 15 recommendations for various UK bodies to dramatically reduce public health risks by increasing the water quality in its , such as rivers and lakes.
United States
See also
External links
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